Greek Orthodox Patrology: An Introduction to the Study of the Church Fathers
Saint Athanasiius of Alexandria: Original Research and New Perspectives
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The
Conflict Then and Now
No matter what its official policy with regard to the separation of church
and state, every political state, ancient and modern, has been involved
with the religious beliefs of its citizens. In the fourth century the state
was officially Christian, but the Church was being undermined from within
by those who wished to secularize and rationalize it. Today our world is
divided according to whether the political states are communist or anti-communist.
The relationship of the church to the state is much more complicated, but
in both kinds of societies the church is challenged by scientific technology,
and by people who think that the Church should conform to it. In the fourth
century the Arians represented the secular and rational element which was
in bitter conflict with the Orthodox whose faith was expressed in the Nicene
Creed. The Arians employed every conceivable political device to oust the
Orthodox from positions of authority and replace them with their own men.
Asia Minor, which is now Turkey, was divided into several dioceses among
which were Pontus and Cappadocia. In the fourth century this area had the
most thriving churches and the most active intellectual life of any part
of the empire. In fact, until the time of Theodosius (AD. 379) all the emperors
made their residence, not in Constantinople, but in Cappadocia or Antioch.
Caesarea in Cappadocia (the modern Kayseri) and Antioch in Syria (now Turkey)
were two of the places in which the Arian controversy brought forth the
bitterest conflicts and whose churches became famous for the great men whom
they produced.
Gregory Nazianzen: His Early Life
Three figures, all great fathers of the Church, tower above all others of
this period: Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, and his brother Gregory
of Nyssa. The Nazianzen was the eldest, having been born probably in A.D.
325, the year of the Council of Nicaea. He takes his name from the town
near his father's estate where he was born. His mother Nonna was a Christian,
a woman of remarkable learning, ability, and devotion, who converted her
husband. Gregory's father had been a teacher of rhetoric (language and speech)
in the pagan tradition, but when he became a Christian, he was made bishop
of Nazianzus. Gregory had an older sister of whom he was very fond, and
a younger brother Caesarius who became a physician at the imperial court
in Constantinople. Gregory and his brother first went to school in Caesarea,
where they met Basil, and then traveled together to another city named Caesarea
in Palestine to study rhetoric. It was a period in which learning was highly
regarded, and for this reason we have much written material about these
great men and writings of their own which tell us about their lives and
times.
From Palestine Gregory and his brother went to Alexandria. We are not sure
whether they met Athanasius, but probably they did not. It seems to have
been one of his periods of exile (AD. 340-347). From Alexandria Gregory
took ship for Athens to pursue his studies. When the boat was off the island
of Cyprus there was a tremendous storm. Everyone feared for his life, and
Gregory, who was as yet unbaptized, vowed that if he escaped with his life,
he would devote it to God. In Athens he was joined by his friend Basil,
who had been his schoolmate in Cappadocia, and together they faced the temptations
of student life which seem to have been as great then as now. There was
a great deal of unrestrained indulgence in pleasure; there were organizations
like fraternities which practiced "hazing." But Gregory and Basil
made a positive decision not to become embroiled in these distractions but
to maintain a disciplined life and devote themselves to study. One of their
classmates was Julian, the future emperor, nephew of the incumbent emperor
Constantius. Gregory said of him at the time, "What an evil the Roman
State is nourishing!"
First Works for the Church
On his return to Nazianzus, Gregory stopped in Constantinople to bring with
him his brother Caesarius, whose worldly life at court was a matter of great
concern to him. In Nazianzus he divided his time between helping his father
to manage his diocese and in staying with his friend Basil at a small monastery
which he had established at Annesi in Pontus. During these periods together
with Basil, they collaborated on a series of explanations of Holy Scripture
which were called "Philokalia."
It soon became evident to Gregory that his father had too great a need for
assistance for him to remain long detached from the Church. His father had
gotten himself into trouble by being persuaded to sign one of the semi-Arian
creeds which had been drawn up at one of the many synods (the Synod of Seleucia)
which the emperor Constantius delighted to call together. The neighboring
monks (who spent more time studying theology) withdrew from the diocese
on the grounds that the bishop, Gregory's father, was not Orthodox. Gregory
persuaded his father to sign an Orthodox creed and to deny his connection
with any Arian persuasion. But the father, who was already about eighty-five
years old, pressed Gregory to be ordained so that he could give him more
assistance. In A.D. 361, the year in which Julian became emperor, Gregory
was finally ordained much against his will, Almost immediately following
the ordination he retreated to the monastery in Pontus and did not return
until the following year at Easter. He preached the Easter sermon in his
father's church and made apology for his flight, but the sermon became famous
because he made it the occasion to explain in detail his beliefs concerning
the office of priesthood, its nature and responsibilities. It became the
classic treatise on the subject and was used as a model by St. Basil and
later by St. John Chrysostom.
Gregory and the Pagan Emperor
Meanwhile, when Julian became emperor, Gregory had strongly urged his brother
to leave the court, because he feared that its pagan influence would be
even worse than the Arian. Caesarius finally agreed, taking advantage of
Julian's departure for Persia, where the eastern boundaries of the empire
were threatened, as occasion for his return to Nazianzus.
During his passage through Cappadocia, Julian did not miss the opportunity
to continue his opposition to the Church, but sent the prefect of the province
with an armed guard to demand the surrender of the church which Gregory's
father served as bishop. The aged man, his son, and the people resisted
with such strength that the prefect had to withdraw his forces. Julian transferred
his attentions to other churches along his route, but because of the resistance
he encountered, he abandoned the hope of success for the moment, promising
to continue his persecutions when he had disposed of the Persians. In this
he was disappointed because the Persians disposed of him instead, and he
was killed before he reached Ctesiphon.
Troubled Years
The next year, A.D. 363, the bishop of Caesarea, Eusebius, prevailed upon
Gregory's friend Basil to be ordained. Basil, like Gregory, preferred the
monastic life, so it was only at the insistence of his friends, who pointed
out that the dangers threatening the Church required that men of talent
and ability such as himself be recruited to serve her, that he could be
persuaded to take this step. Eusebius, however, quarreled soon after with
Basil, and Basil took refuge in his monastery in Pontus. Eusebius thereupon
invited Gregory to become his adviser. Gregory refused, not merely because
his father needed him urgently, but more because he would not betray his
friendship with Basil, instead, he made peace between the two.
Caesarius, who had returned to court on the accession of Valens, was rewarded
by the emperor with a piece of valuable property in Bithynia. Shortly afterwards
he died and left the property in trust to Gregory for the benefit of the
poor.
An Unwilling Bishop
In A.D. 370 Eusebius, the bishop of Caesarea, died and Basil invited his
friend Gregory to assume the episcopate. Gregory declined, saying that Basil
was himself the obvious candidate. At the urgent persuasion of Gregory and
other friends, Basil finally accepted the office and thereby became the
protagonist in the conflict between the new Arian emperor Valens and the
Orthodox Church. Valens was infuriated by the way in which the churches
of Cappadocia were thriving and particularly by the power and success of
Basil. He decided that the most effective way to reduce Basil's influence
was to divide his diocese in half and establish the bishop of the neighboring
city of Tyana as the metropolitan of the rival diocese.
Basil retaliated by creating two bishops to serve under himself and placed
them in two towns of the disputed diocese. He won his point but lost a friend.
The two men he made bishops were his brother Gregory and his friend Gregory
Nazianzen. His friend was given a miserable little hamlet called Sasima
as the seat of his diocese, and when, much against his will, he was persuaded
by Basil's brother to make an attempt to assume his episcopal duties, he
found the door of the church barred by force of arms, He returned home,
resigned his see, and retired to the monastic life which he preferred above
all other. His friendship with Basil was never restored. He preached a eulogy
for Basil when he died in 377, and Basil attended the funeral of Gregory's
father when he died in 374 at the age of 100, but otherwise their lives,
which had been inseparably intertwined since school days, were separately
directed, Gregory retired to the church of Saint Thekla in Isauria until
the new emperor Theodosius summoned him to Constantinople in AD. 379.
First Orthodox Emperor Since Constantine
The emperor Gratian, a friend and disciple of the great Ambrose of Milan,
became in AD. 379 the first Orthodox emperor since Constantine and appointed
as his coemperor in the east a man named Theodosius who was also Orthodox.
Theodosius came from Segovia in Spain and possessed the more violent enthusiasm
of a frontiersman. Whether he was a convert or born Christian is uncertain,
but his firm allegiance to the Orthodox faith throughout many political
upheavals can be attributed in large part to his excellent wife Flacilla
(or Placidia) who is honored as a saint. It was she who was responsible
for Theodosius' refusal to listen to the arguments of "the fourth century
rationalist" Eunomius. She had a strong influence over him and he became
as zealous for Orthodoxy as his predecessors had been for Arianism. One
of his first acts was to use a decree of state to abolish Arianism on the
same terms that it had previously been established.
The people of Constantinople who had suffered forty years under Arian bishops
asked Theodosius for on Orthodox one, and he granted their request. He invited
Gregory to come from his retirement and occupy the episcopal throne. Conditions
in the city were bad, because Valens had forbidden the Orthodox the use
of all the churches, and numerous were the crimes which had been committed
against them. Many new heresies had been encouraged, and Gregory devoted
his skill to writing against the Eunomians who claimed that they could explain
the nature of God by logical definition. Worst of all was the fact that
the city mobs had become accustomed to Arian methods and propaganda. The
situation in Constantinople at the time is described thus:
"Religious feeling, like everything else, had become to idle and empty
minds a subject for joking and amusement. What belonged to the theatre was
brought into the Church, and what belonged to the Church into the theatre.
The more sincere Christian feelings were held up in comedies to the ridicule
of the multitude. Everything was so changed by the people of Constantinople
into a subject for amusement that anything serious was turned by witty remarks
into trivia, and holy things became a subject for jokes and ridicule in
the refined conversation of worldly people. The worst part was that the
unrestrained delight of these men in pure enjoyment threatened to turn the
Church into a theatre, and the preacher into a play actor. If he wanted
to please the multitude, he must adapt himself to their taste, and entertain
them amusingly in the Church. They demanded in the preaching something that
would please the ear, flashy declamation with theatrical gestures; and they
clapped with the same pleasure for the comedian in the holy place and him
on the stage."
Gregory Appointed to Constantinople
It was this kind of environment that Gregory came to assume his duties.
He established a chapel in the house of a relative, and went to work preaching
on the subject of the Holy Trinity. Five of these, known as "The Five
Orations" gained for him the title of "Theologian," conferred
by the Council of Ephesus, a title which he holds alone with St. John the
Theologian among all the fathers of the Church. St. Jerome came to Constantinople
to hear him preach and praised him highly. Meanwhile the Arians persecuted
Gregory. They hired assassins and tried to murder him. Worst of all, Gregory
was led astray by an imposter, a man named Maximus, who was a confederate
of some troublemakers in Egypt. Maximus was consecrated secretly and put
on the archbishop's throne in the middle of the night. The people, whose
violent expression of opinion had great influence on the course of events
in this period, drove Maximus out, but they were also tired of Gregory.
He was not the kind of showman that they liked. He was too ascetic, and
would not attend fine banquets and live like a prince. Gregory, who desired
nothing as much to return to monastic life, was prevented by his friends,
who assured him that if he went, the "faith would go with him."
The Second Ecumenical Council
In AD. 380 Theodosius came to Constantinople, took the churches away from
the Arians, and established Gregory in Saint Sophia. The following year
he summoned a council of bishops (the Second Ecumenical Council) to assemble
in Constantinople. Presiding over this council was Meletius, archbishop
of Antioch, who had suffered many years of exile, first while he was bishop
of Sebaste in Armenia, and later after he became archbishop of Antioch in
360. His restoration to the see, which had been usurped by Arian bishops,
was due to Theodosius.
It was Meletius who performed the enthronement of Gregory as archbishop
of Constantinople. Meletius was described as a man of "simple life,
pure morals, sincere piety, affable manners who held the affection of his
people and was esteemed by St. John Chrysostom, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St.
Gregory of Nyssa, St. Basil, and even by his adversary Epiphanius. There
was honey in his disposition as well as in his name." (The ancients
were fond of derivations, and they saw in the name Meletius a connection
with the Greek word meli-honey). St. Basil wrote, " Meletius was the
first to speak truly in favor of the truth and to fight the good fight in
the reign of Constantius." Meletius avoided technical language and
vain discussion, and when he was asked for a summary of Christian teaching,
he extended three fingers, then closed two, and said, "Three persons
are conceived in the mind, but it is as if we addressed one only."
This gesture became a rallying sign, and there was a time when every family
in Antioch had a son named Meletius in honor of this beloved leader.
The presidency of the Second Ecumenical Council was the final act of Meletius'
career, for he died just after it had begun. Gregory took over the leadership
of the council, and one of its first acts was to authorize his transfer
from the see in Sasima to the capital of the empire. This immediately provided
his enemies with grounds for technical censure. The trouble again originated
with the Egyptian bishops who were jealous of the position of honor which
the patriarchate of Constantinople had assumed. By this time Gregory had
had enough, and he asked permission of the emperor to resign. The speech
with which he took leave of the council remains one of the most magnificent
orations ever delivered anywhere by anyone. In it he gave an account of
his work in Constantinople. He returned to Nazianzus, where he soon found
a successor to take over his duties there. For the few remaining years of
his life he retired to the estate where he had been born. His sole luxuries
during these years of retirement were a garden and a fountain. These days
were spent in writing letters to his friends and in refuting the heresy
of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, thereby "anticipating in the fourth
century the heresies of the fifth." He died in AD. 391.
St. Basil the Great
St. Basil, who was born about five years later than Gregory-in A.D. 330,
the year of the founding of Constantinople-belonged to a remarkable Christian
family. His grandparents had fled the persecution of Diocletian and taken
refugee in Pontus, moving later to Caesarea. His grandfather had thereby
lost life and property, but his grandmother Macrina survived and molded
the Christian faith of the family. His father, whose name was also Basil,
died early in life, leaving his mother Emmelia with a large family. There
were originally five boys and five girls. We know of four boys all of whom
become saints. One of the sisters, Macrina, led a very holy life which had
great influence on her brothers and she, too, is remembered as a saint.
Basil was the eldest son, the third was Gregory, and the youngest was Peter.
All three became bishops.
Basil's Early Life
Basil's early life was centered partly in Caesarea in Cappadocia and partly
in the estate at Annesi in Pontus, where his mother had founded a chapel
dedicated to the forty martyrs of Sebaste, whose relics she possessed. Here
under the tutelage of his grandmother, his mother, and his father, he was
brought up to love and respect the teachings of the great bishop of that
region, St. Gregory Thaumatourgos (the Wonderworker). He learned among other
things a creed drawn up by him for the church of Neocaesarea.
Basil's father was a lawyer and rhetorician, and he followed this path of
education, first at Caesarea, where he first met his great friend Gregory
of Nazianzus, and then in Constantinople. In AD. 351 he proceeded to Athens
where his university colleagues included his friend Gregory and the future
emperor Julian. When he left Athens in 358, Basil was equipped with the
best education which the times could supply, and this was no mean accomplishment.
It is necessary to emphasize that it was not lack of education that determined
the diverse objectives to which the lives of Basil and Gregory as opposed
to Julian were dedicated. They were fully informed of all the rational arguments
which Christianity faced then, and which it faces now, but they accepted
different views.
Interest in Monasticism
After his return in 357 Basil was baptized and ordained reader. He had already
decided upon the monastic life, and made an extensive journey to Syria,
Palestine, and Egypt to visit monasteries and ascetics there. They must
have been the occasion of his meeting Eustathius of Sebaste who became a
lifelong friend and whom he greatly admired. Eustathius introduced monasticism
into Pontus, and was later involved in the same troubles which beset Meletius.
As a result of his study of other monastics of his day, Basil developed
a new type of discipline which was to become the norm for eastern monasticism
from that time forth. The rule of St. Basil is one which does not enforce
absolute isolation, but prescribes a life in which monks share their food
and live in communities, pursuing their studies and meditations in solitude.
Basil established as his retreat his family home at Annesi, near the convent
occupied by his mother and sister. He was influential in the establishment
of similar communities throughout the district, each one of which became
a center for active preaching of the Nicene doctrine.
While still a deacon, Basil attended one of the many councils convened by
the emperor Constantius for the purpose of Arianizing the faith. Although
he was not yet in a position of enough authority to carry much weight, he
made many friends, among these friends were many who did not always know
on which side of the theological argument to be. It required a firm and
sure mind to steer a clear course among the various creeds and arguments
which the Arians were constantly strewing in the way, and some of these
friends found themselves in the position of being accused of heresies which
they hardly understood. It was at this time that an Arian had been placed
in the see of Antioch, and bishop Meletius, who was later to become its
Orthodox bishop, had just been exiled from the see of Sebaste.
The Bishop of Caesarea
Basil was not ordained until AD. 364, the year of Valens' accession to the
imperial throne. The bishop of Caesarea, who ordained him, and his friend
Gregory of Nazianzus exercised persuasion to bring him from his monastic
seclusion and to fight the battle against the Arians in the open field.
"The Holy Spirit must win," they said. There was a great deal
of public argument, and many false accusations were made against Basil's
orthodoxy. Meanwhile Basil worked without ceasing, directing a theological
campaign throughout the province by declaring himself willing to meet anyone
in argument on the subject of the Nicene faith. It was probably at this
time that he arranged and made use of the Liturgy which bears his name.
Crowds of working people came to hear Basil preach before they went to work
far the day. He traveled distances that would amaze people in on age of
much easier travel. He established institutions for the sick, the orphaned,
and the destitute. His friend Gregory of Nazianzus has left us a picture
of Basil standing in the midst of a great crowd of men and women and children,
some scarcely able to breathe because of the crush; of servants bringing
in piles of food suited to the weak state of the famished sufferers; of
Basil with his own hands distributing nourishment, and with his own voice
cheering and encouraging the sufferers.
In AD. 370, on the death of his friend Eusebius, Basil was made archbishop
of Caesarea. Toward the end of the following year he had his most serious
conflict with the emperor. Valens was especially hostile to the diocese
because the faith was thriving so well there. He wanted to undermine Basil's
influence by dividing his diocese in half and making the divisions conform
to political districts.
Basil and the Emperor
On his return from victories over the barbarians, Valens made a visit to
Caesarea. Ahead of him traveled a man named Modestus, prefect of the guard,
and ahead of Modestus traveled a troop of Arian bishops. By the time Modestus
arrived, he found Basil making a firm standing against the bishops. Modestus
summoned Basil with the thought of intimidating him. Modestus claimed submission
in the name of the emperor. Basil refused in the name of God. Modestus threatened
poverty, exile, torture, and death. Basil replied that none of these things
frightened him; he had nothing to lose except a few rags and books; banishment
could not remove him from the care of God; torture could not greatly harm
a body almost dead already; death could only come as a friend to hasten
his last journey. Modestus exclaimed in amazement that he had never had
anyone speak thus to him before.
"Perhaps," replied Basil, "you have never met a bishop before."
The prefect reported to Valens, saying that other measures would have to
be found to crush the prelate. Valens was not a man of strength, either
physical or moral; he was obese and had crooked legs and a defective eye;
he was hesitant in speech and action. The contrast between himself and Basil
must have appeared dramatic. Basil was of upright carriage, commanding height,
dignified manner, with long beard, high cheekbones, brown hair and eyes.
Valens was so far from being able to pursue the challenge that he even agreed
to attend church on the eve of Theophany. The church was crowded. The voices
of the singers thundered mightily over the sea of heads. Before the sanctuary
stood Basil, statuesque, like a prophet of old and quite indifferent to
the interruption of the imperial arrival. Valens, who must have been unsure
whether he was in heaven or on earth, staggered as he approached the throne
of God.
The next day he had an interview with Basil concerning church matters. It
was on this occasion that Basil's wit and sense of humor were manifest.
The emperor had a steward named, like the Greek orator of the third century
B.C., Demosthenes. This man was chief of the imperial kitchen, but he took
it upon himself to interrupt the conversation between the emperor and the
archbishop, and to give his opinions of the theological questions being
discussed. He even threatened Basil with a knife and was told to return
to his kitchen.
"An illiterate Demosthenes!" was Basil's comment, "It is
better for him to cook the emperor's stew than to cook the divine dogmas."
Valens was pleased by the humor, and as a result made a contribution to
Basil's orphanage, but his friendliness was purely superficial. Basil would
not admit Arians to communion, and Valens could not tolerate his refusal.
At the same time Valens was much distressed by the dangerous illness of
his infant son, and asked Basil to pray for him in spite of the fact that
he had just threatened him with exile.
Basil was not free of discourtesy on the part of public officials. On one
occasion a widow came to him for help because an unwelcome marriage was
being forced upon her. Basil's enemies made this an occasion for evil insinuations,
and the magistrate went so far as to tear Basil's garment from his emaciated
body and threaten him with torture. Basil replied that if this treatment
was going to relieve him of his liver, it might relieve him of a great inconvenience,
for he suffered from his liver!
So far Basil had triumphed in his conflict with the emperor, but he was
faced with a new difficulty when his diocese was partitioned and half of
it was given over to a rival bishop. Basil resisted by creating two dependent
bishops himself and setting them up in the disputed territory. One was his
younger brother Gregory whom he made bishop of Nyssa, and the other was
his friend Gregory Nazianzen whom he established in Sasima. When someone
suggested that these were extremely lowly places for men of such distinction,
Basil replied that he expected the men to confer honor upon the places and
not the places to confer honor upon the men. Even though he won a strategic
victory, Basil lost a friend, for his relationship with his friend Gregory
was never the same after that.
During the last few years of Basil's life the attention of the emperor was
diverted from persecuting Christians to defending the Danube region against
the Goths. In A.D. 378 Valens was killed in the battle of Adrianople and
two-thirds of the imperial army was annihilated. It is characteristic of
Basil's preoccupation with spiritual matters that these worldly events scarcely
brought forth a mention. On January 1, 379 Basil died. Gregory of Nazianzus,
who was not at his side, has nevertheless left a noble picture of his former
friend. Several times after he was thought dead, he rallied enough to speak
with vigor, and even conferred ordination on some of the faithful at his
side. Crowds surrounded his residence, praying for him, willing to sacrifice
their lives for him. Finally he said, "Into thy hands I commend my
spirit," and was gone.
The funeral was attended by great hordes of persons of all sorts, including
pagans and Jews, and the outcry of the people drowned out the sound of the
hymns. The crowds were so great that some even got hurt in the press. He
was laid to rest with his family and so passed the soul of a man whose life-long
defense of the Church earned him the title of "the Great."
From Word
Magazine
Publication of the Antiochian Orthodox
Christian Archdiocese of North America
February
1968
pp. 15-19
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