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"Europe
is now at a turning point. It is a decisive moment: the kairos Europe."1 "The continent of Christendom"
is facing new realities and challenges. Values considered for centuries
to be the bedrock of European existence are being questioned from many
sides. Loss of faith, dehumanization, uncertainty and fear and even a
transformation of the physiognomy of Europe have radically shaken European
self- confidence. Do European Christians have the resources to confront
these challenges?
Vision and plea
When
discussing the question of Europa Christiana, two very critical points
must be seriously considered. The conversion of Europe to Christianity
is the direct result of both a vision - "during the night Paul had
a vision" - and a plea for help - "there stood a man of Macedonia
pleading with him and saying, 'Come over to Macedonia and help us'"
(Acts 16:9). With St Paul's arrival at Neapolis, the gospel was first
brought to Europe. Paul of course did not confine his evangelization to
cities of Macedonia, such as Philippi and Thessalonica, nor even to other
Greek cities, such as Athens and Corinth, but continued his missionary
journey to Rome, capital of the empire. In the course of Christian Europe's
long history, the plea of the man of Macedonia in Paul's vision has been
almost totally forgotten. The creation of a world characterized by self-sufficiency
and even arrogance is the weakness of European Christianity, which has
become too rationalized, egocentric and self-confident. What has been
lost is the profound sense of need reflected in the plea for help. It
must be acknowledged that what European Christians need most urgently
today is God's help; and we must plead for it with the humility of the
man of Paul's vision. We need to rediscover humility, as it is described
by St Maximus the Confessor in his Centuries on Charity:
Humility is continual prayer with tears and hardships. This
constant calling upon God for help does not permit us senselessly to grow
bold in our own prayer and wisdom nor to put ourselves before others.
These are the serious diseases of the passion of pride.2
The
vision which inspired Paul to bring the gospel to Europe was not his first.
Part of his own conversion was hearing God's voice on the road to Damascus,
a revelatory experience which transformed him from Saul into Paul. It
is important to note that in both cases confrontation with the historical
phenomenon of Jesus Christ and the new reality in him, the reality of
the gospel, required revelatory, spiritual experience. It is the miracle
of the Spirit which makes history accessible. There is no other way to
understand history, given that the miracle of God's appearance in the
historical context cannot be explained in terms of historical causality.
The over-valuation of history evident in the long course of European development
results in an under-estimation of what the New Testament calls "miracle".
Over the centuries, this over-valuation of history has affected scholastic
interpretations as well as the protracted discussions concerning the historical
Jesus.
"Classical" and "contextual" theology
An
examination of Paul's method of proclaiming the message of God in an extremely
complex world can be very instructive for our theological orientation.
Living in a world of tensions - not only political, but also social, economic
and even ecclesiastical and theological - we realize more and more that
we need a re-formation of our theological work and that this cannot be
other than a conscious return to the apostolic inheritance. The mission
of the apostle Paul is a challenge to our theological work. It is perfectly
clear that his sole objective was to preach to the nations the message
of God who "so loved the world" that he became part of it (John
3:16). Out of this pastoral care, Paul became "all things to all
people":
For though I am free with respect to all, I have made myself
a slave to all, so that I might win more of them. To the Jews I became
as a Jew, in order to win Jews. To those under the law, I became as one
under the law... so that I might win those under the law. To those outside
the law, I became as one outside the law... so that I might win those
outside the law. To the weak I became weak, so that I might win the weak.
I have become all things to all people, that I might by all means save
some. (1 Cor. 9:19-22)
What
more eloquent biblical justification of what is called today "contextual
theology"? Indeed, I have great difficulty accepting the possibility
of any authentic theology which is not "contextual". The way
Paul worked when he visited Athens is significant. First he tried to find
a method to communicate his message to the highly religious and educated
Athenians. The way he started his speech is very significant:
"Athenians..., as I went through the city and looked carefully
at the objects of your worship, I found among them an altar with the inscription,
'To an unknown God'. What therefore you worship as unknown, this I proclaim
to you." (Acts 17:22-23)
Thus
Paul communicated the theological word in a manner related to the particular
social, cultural and religious situation he found in Athens. He used an
analogous approach preaching the gospel elsewhere in Asia and Europe.
The more thoroughly his epistles are studied, the stronger the realization
that his primary methodology in proclaiming the Christian truth was always
and everywhere to take seriously into account the mentality and culture,
the specific circumstances and background of his hearers. Writing to the
Romans, for example, he did not hesitate to use legal language and categories.
In
the Eastern patristic tradition one can find a similar appreciation for
particular cultural, linguistic and historical contexts. This contextualization
of theology can already be seen to a certain extent in the emergence of
the theological schools (Alexandrian, Antiochene, etc.) during the fourth
and fifth centuries, but it came into full flower in the missionary activities
of the post-iconoclastic period. The philological work of St Cyril and
St Methodius, for example, as well as their translation and adaptation
of biblical and liturgical texts, made possible the transmission of the
riches of the Christian faith not only to Moravia but to the entire Slavic
people in their own language.
A
theology which is not "contextual" can hardly be a theology
of the Holy Spirit. Nevertheless, some further observations should be
made on the issue of the so-called "classical" and "contextual"
theologies.
First,
the term "classical theology" itself requires some qualification.
If by "classical" we mean "the old which always remains
new", then the theology produced within the European Christian academic
setting - which is what is usually-meant by "classical theology"
- is not at all classical. On the contrary, it has often been rooted in
the syndrome of superiority which has until recently permeated the academic
world in Europe - the belief in the innate superiority of the European
mind. It is a theology which grew within the narrow confines of its own
historical, cultural and geographical context. The products of this European
academic environment are undeniably impressive, creative and fruitful,
but they are to a very large extent a mere continuation of baroque scholastic
metaphysics. Thus the so-called "classical theology" was born
and nourished within a specific context. In other cultural and historical
contexts it has admittedly often been helpful for communicating and understanding
the Christian message; but on the other hand it has also sometimes been
a serious obstacle. To be truly classical, a theology must have universal
acceptance; it must stand in any time and under any particular condition.
A
second observation focuses on the content of what is today called "contextual
theology". Although the intent of this term is clear - theological
adaptation to given cultural, historical, geographical, etc. contexts
- there is often obscurity or even confusion about the implementation
of the process of contextualization. Some recent ecumenical forums and
statements by some theologians within and outside Europe have placed greater
emphasis on the "contextual" than on the "theological".
Thus "contextual theology" often becomes detheologizing: the
context - historical, cultural and even religious - becomes the ultimate
criterion for theology. A genuine "contextual theology" will
not destroy the harmony between "context" and "theology",
either by imposing a theology produced within one academic environment
on every corner of the world, nor by absolutely imposing culturo-social
criteria on theology. An authentic "contextual theology" will
preserve a balance between "con- text" and "theology"
while remaining faithful to the fundamentals of the Christian revelation.
Theology
which creates a gulf between itself and the context is not Christian theology.
But again, theology which identifies itself with the context and becomes
a prisoner of it is no longer Christian theology. The task of theological
research is to find such a balance; those involved in theology must realize
that "contextual theology" is not a path towards theological
syncretism, but a responsible and serious presentation of the eternal
truth of the gospel in a given context of culture and thought.
Christian
truth is not a concept which can be manipulated as one wills. Nor can
it be completely accommodated to human sensibilities in order to make
it more perceptible. The Christian Truth is a person (John 14:6) and the
responsibility of theology is to transmit this person to every historical
situation and to people in every social circumstance in an accessible
way. But in doing so we must realize that, although this Truth is offered
to human persons, there is always a shadow around it. -For now we see
in a mirror, dimly, but then we will see face to face" (1 Cor. 13:12).
This
is why the Greek fathers spoke about the mystery of theology. God appears
to us as Light, that is. as clarity, but also as shadow, that is, as the
presence of the hidden, of the mystery which requires humble faith on
our part. There have been those in the past who have sought to put forward
a completely rationalist theology, in which God is reduced to an object
of logical or philosophical investigation; there are people today who
think they can create a theology reduced solely and exclusively to the
various historical struggles and forms of thought or even to social and
religious experiences. Others think they can even construct a "theology"
without God.
The
ecumenical theological vocation must be clearly oriented towards an integral
and holistic understanding of God and history, avoiding every form of
reductionism. In the final analysis, we need to understand with all our
soul and mind that ignoring the context leads theology into a kind of
monophysitism, and that basing theology exclusively on the context leads
to a kind of Nestorianism. I can imagine no better description of the
ideal relation between theology and the context than that proposed by
the Council of Chalcedon (451), in its endeavour to defend the doctrine
of the union of the two natures in the one Person of Christ: "without
confusion, without change, without divisions, without separation".
Theology
must take seriously into account that its task is to serve the world.
This implies an attentive approach to the world's needs and at the same
time a strong conviction that Christ came "to bring fire to the earth"
(Luke 12:49). Christian theology ministers to the world, but it is not
of the world (John 15:18ff.). Its diakonia and its concern are to transform
the world. When Christian theology forgets this, it loses touch with its
very essence. If theology is based on and follows the proclamation of
Jesus Christ, and if the world has been changed by Christ, then the ultimate
goal of theology is the sanctification and the transfiguration of the
world.
The division of the world and its sanctification
Perhaps
more than any other part of the world, Europe has experienced division
on many levels. In many cases, European history is almost identical with
religious conflicts and proselytism, political and national struggles,
divisions along lines of social and economic status, enmities growing
out of geographical boundaries and ethnic identities. Chauvinism and xenophobia
coupled with outright selfishness and an unshakable belief in its own
superiority appear to constitute the essence of the complicated European
reality. The theme for the tenth assembly of the Conference of European
Churches in September 1992 was "God unites - in Christ a new creation".
What does this mean for a Europe which still experiences suffering and
division despite the radical changes in recent years? Unity - are we being
realistic or is it merely a dream? Does the Christian European situation
justify today's divisions?
There
are Christian thinkers who believe we need to rewrite the gospel to meet
the existential questions of the modern human person; I think what we
really need to do is to reread the gospel, overcoming historical, social,
ethnic and denominational prejudices. And rereading the gospel we shall
realize that the only way to overcome our divisions is to accept "the
yoke" and "the burden" of Christ. We must accept the division
brought by Christ himself in order to be free from our own divisions:
Do you think that I have come to bring peace on earth? No,
I tell you, but rather division! From now on five in one household will
be divided, three against two and two against three; they will be divided:
father against son and son against father, mother against daughter and
daughter against mother, mother-in-law against her daughter-in-law and
daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law (Luke 12:51-53);
We
must admit it openly: the Christian way radically transcends the commonly
accepted "human" way, a way which is today inevitably leading
our societies not only to spiritual but also to physical and environmental
suicide. Christianity is indeed a unity, in which the different parts
and the different modes of expression form a unique whole. Their belonging
together is clearly founded on the unity of the work of God, who has drawn
near to us in the form of a servant. This unique condescension can strengthen
contemporary human persons to stand up as one body and confront temptations
to greed and selfishness, excessive demands, egocentrism and chauvinism
in all their varied manifestations.
It
is our urgent duty to realize that our Christian commitment requires us
to transform our self-centred European reality into selfless love for
our neighbour, for the society of which we are a part and for the world
and the environment in which we live. It goes without saying that the
industrial cities we have created and our highly advanced technological
society are in the final analysis a mirror of our way of thought. We think
in terms of division rather than of unity and integrity. We must remember
this in dealing with questions such as the environmental crisis.
This
means that the problems of the modern human person are not accidents external
to himself or herself but are intimately related to his or her attitudes
and life. They are, in fact, the natural consequences of his or her existential
condition. The relation between a human being and all which is external
to him or her is analogous to the relationship he or she has created with
his or her own conscience. The point is that we have created for ourselves
a polarized existence:
I see in my members another law at war with the law of my mind,
making me captive to the law of sin that dwells in my members. Wretched
man that I am! Who will rescue me from this body of death? (Rom. 7:23-24)
What
I am trying to say is this: the European approach has created a manner
of thought and life which is clearly rooted in a loss of awareness of
who we are. We suffer from a profound ignorance of ourselves. We have
forgotten that we are created in the image and likeness of the eternal
Beauty and Life and that our ultimate goal is communion with God and harmony
with the entire cosmic reality. St Gregory of Nyssa did not hesitate to
adopt a language deeply impregnated with Platonic thought to bring this
insight to the attention of his contemporaries:
The universe is continuous with itself and the harmony of existence
knows no rupture; rather, there is a union of all beings with one another.
And the conjunction of the universe is not severed, but everything continues
in being, held together by the power of the real Being. Now, that which
really is, is Goodness itself or something still higher, if such a name
signifying the unutterable nature can be found... Therefore, this Good,
or even beyond Good, is Itself alone truly existent and was giving and
continues to give of Itself to those who exist both the power to exist
and the permanence in existence.3
Progressively,
beginning in the post-Renaissance period and continuing thereafter, human
persons have considered the natural cosmos to be their own possession.
We as heirs of that vision have only slightly respected the sacredness
of the created cosmos. This is in fact the origin of what we today recognize
as "the environmental crisis". Thus, not only theology but also
our outlook towards nature suffer from a fragmented attitude. On the theological
level, the approach of the European mind was exported to every corner
of the world as the theology. Likewise, the European attitude towards
the natural world was adopted as the norm everywhere. "Progress",
"development", "improvement", "exploitation"
- all these are terms expressing the human relation with nature. It is
urgent that we reappraise this attitude. Many believe that the ecological
crisis is basically and primarily a spiritual crisis. Many speak of metanoia
as the only solution to the problem - not simply regret for mistakes of
the past, but a complete and existential "change of mind".
The
theme of metanoia was discussed during the CEC assembly; and there was
consensus on many levels that we need a re-evaluation of what we think
of ourselves and, consequently, of how we understand and treat the natural
world. If we understand nature as a gift from God in which divine wisdom
and harmony are manifested, and if we understand ourselves as called to
be "participants of the divine nature" (2 Pet. 1:4), there is
no foundation for any polarization between the human person and the cosmos.
Our
vocation as human beings is always conscious that we mediate between the
created and Uncreated. Our approach to the created cosmos must be based
on the fact that it reflects God's wisdom and beauty and that our relationship
with it has serious implications for our relationship with God.
It
is encouraging that many churches today realize the urgency of the ecological
problem, its spiritual dimension and their responsibility to contribute
to avoiding a cosmic catastrophe and establishing a new relationship with
nature. One reflection of this is the initiative of the Ecumenical Patriarchate
to consecrate 1 September each year as a "Day of Protection of Creation".
The
cosmological vision of the Orthodox church can make a very constructive
contribution to reconsideration of the environmental issue because of
its affirmation that there exists a hidden presence of the holy throughout
the entire cosmos. The constant and ultimate goal of church life is the
sanctification of the entire cosmos. It is a basic ecclesiological principle
in the Eastern tradition that within the church, matter is taken and offered
as eucharistia (thanksgiving) to God. Since, "every generous act
of giving, with every perfect gift, is from above, coming down from the
Father of lights",4 the church ascribes glory to God, Father, Son and Holy
Spirit, offering him "his own from his own".5
Such
an approach was exemplified in the celebration of the Orthodox service
of the "Blessing of the Loaves", marking the "Day of Protection
of Creation" at the beginning of the CEC assembly (1 September 1992).
The blessing of the bread and its distribution to the participants expressed
visually the reality that we all share the same material world, but was
at the same time a reminder that the sanctification of matter and nature
is an essential dimension of Christian cosmology. Ultimately, the foundation
of such an approach is the theandric Mystery itself, in which the sanctification
of the created world found its full realization.6
East and West
By
criticizing certain aspects of life and thought in Europe past and present,
I do not mean to deny or minimize the significance of Europe's strengths
nor the importance of its spiritual heritage. It is only fair to recognize
that Europe can play a very significant role and can mark the present
and the future of all humankind.
When
considering Christian Europe, we must always remember that it has within
itself two traditions which, despite their differences in character, theological
and historico-cultural visions, have in common many fundamentals which
inwardly unite them. Eastern and Western European Christendom, despite
their quite different evolutions, share a common Christian inheritance.
This unique historical reality can be a source of spiritual strength challenging
the dominance of materialism and technology in the contemporary world.
It
is an historical fact that not only Western but also Eastern Christianity
must be called European, given that both developed from the same primitive
Christianity which was adopted by and ultimately transformed the Greco-Roman
world. Thus, although Orthodoxy may be called Eastern Christianity, it
would be unthinkable to identify it as "Asiatic" Christianity.
Despite the fact that a great part of the Byzantine and later the Russian
empires covered Asiatic lands, the historical reality must not be confused
with the geographical. This is not the place to discuss this issue in
all its details. The essential point is that Orthodoxy, the European East,
and the European West possess a common spiritual dynamism which can confront
the challenges, crises and opportunities of the new era.
In
a Europe of transition, of radical changes, of enthusiasm, but also of
degradation and fear, Christians must be responsible and provide a creative
option. The creation of a new history is the common responsibility of
both Eastern and Western European Christians.
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NOTES
1.
God Unites
- In Christ a New Creation, working document for the 10th assembly of
the Conference of European Churches, 1992, par. 58.
2.
III, 87
(PG 90, 1044bc).
3.
In Ecclesiasten,
VII (PG 44, 724d-725a).
4.
Jarnes
1:17 and Prayer behind the Amvon of the Byzantine Divine Liturgy.
5.
Prayer
of the prophet David (1 Chron. 29:14) and Divine Liturgies of St Basil
and St John Chrysostom.
6.
Cf. Gregory Palamas, Homily XVI (PG 151, 201d-204a): "The Son of
God became man... in order to reveal our own nature, which has been created
by God to be good... Our human nature is related to God so that it can
be united with him in one hypostasis."
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